Many parents, educators and other child care professinals believe that learning one language is normal, but that learning two languages is a burden and puts children at risk for delayed speech and language development. In his article, Fred Genesee from McGill University reviews research findings on the issues commonly associated with (and not always rightly so) bilingualism in babies and offers suggestions about dual language learning during the infancy and toddler period.
Genesee reminds parents that learning their family's different languages is benefitial for infants who can then fully function within their family. Also, because language is an integral part of cultural identity, "minority language children risk becoming aliented if they do not learn the home language."
Research has shown that children fluent in two languages have certain cognitive advantages compared to those who speak only one. They are better at problem solving, demonstrate greater creativity, and express more tolerant attitudes toward others, for instance. If children are going to benefit from these cognitive advantages, they must use both languages regularly. Genesee says that "parents and other child care providers should understand that if they want infants and toddlers to benefit cognitively from knowing two languages, they should be serious and committed to raising children bilingually." It is also important that dual language learning starts early because infants and toddlers are particularly adept at learning languages.
Significantly, research shows that simultaneous bilingual children go through the basic milestones in language acquisitions as children who learn only one language. These children do so at the same rate as monolingual children, provided they are given adequate learning environments. Bilingual children begin to babble at the same age as monolingual children. They say their first words at the same age and start to produce multiword sentences at the same age as well.
Many people assume that infants and toddlers can become confused by exposure to two languages, however Genesee reminds them that "as long as most people in the child's family, community, and child care facility use one language at a time, the child will learn that this is the appropriate way to use the two languages. Research has shown that most bilingual children keep their languages separate most of the time. When they mix, it is often to fill gaps in their vocabulary in one or the other language. Mixed does not mean that children are confused or impaired; they are simply using all of their language resources to express themselves."
Other research has revealed that even though simultaneous bilingual learners have approximately half as much exposure to each language as monolingual learners, they display the same basic developmental patterns at approximately the same ages as their monolingual counterparts. On the flip side of this, it is commonly thought that children with language impairment should learn just one language as learning two could result in even greater impairments and delays by exceeding their language learning capacity. Though there is very little research on dual language learning by children with SLI, Genesee explains how research evidence that is available suggests that children with language impairment can become bilingual.
Zero to Three, September 2008
In this article, Wendy Jones and Isabella Lorenzo-Hubert, from the Georgetown University Centre for Child and Human Development in Washington DC, establish good practice for enhancing the learning experiences of children of diverse cultures and languages. They confirm that it is "critical that staff of early childhood programs be aware of how parental perspectives, beliefs, and practices affect children's overall development as well as their adjustment to and success in early childhood settings. In addition, staff should consider their own roles in each child's development and how their own views on development may differ from those of a child's family. When such differences occur, staff should work with families to bridge the cultural gap between home and school expectations to aid children in their transition between settings." This is particularly important because when family and teacher expectations differ, children may experience difficulty in determining the cultural rules of both environments. In order to avoid such confusion, child care providers should form partnerships between families and the staff members.
Families can provide a wealth of information regarding the settlement history of their cultural group, which can, in turn, provide caregivers and programme staff members with invaluable insights into the behaviours and needs of a young child and his family. In addition, acquainting family members with the culture of the early childhood programme is imperative to the development of partnerships for learning. According to Jones and Lorenzeo-Hubert, "this exchange can help bridge differences in expectations of the programme and the families it serves, thereby minimizing conflicts for the child."
According to Jones and Lorenzo-Hubert, there are four key constructs that underlie the integral relationship between culture and language:
- Culture defines language, and language is shaped by culture
- Language is a symbol of cultural and personal identity
- Cultural groups have different worldviews based on the shared experiences that influence their various languages
- Language is the medium by which culture is transmitted from generation to generation
They then go on to list strategies based on these foundations such as:
- Involve family members in discussions about communicating with their infant or toddler, with understanding and respect for the variety of beliefs that families hold
- Provide opportunities for children to hear and use their home language in natural interactions
- Model responsive strategies for infant-toddler communications for family members
- Discuss the family's goals related to English and home language usage, share the programme's goals, and develop a personalized approach for each child
The article concludes by reminding people that any effective educational foundation must respect and honour cultural beliefs, practices, preferences and tradition as it nurtures the individual abilities and learning needs of each child. It is not easy, however through professional-family partnerships, a balance between programme goals and parental expectations can be achieved.
Zero to Three, September 2008
Annalisa Barbieri answered a question
from parents about introducing a second language to a two-year-old
child in an article in The Guardian. Following are some extracts
from the article.
The question posed: Our child
is two and we'd really like to introduce a second language
but are not sure what the 'best' way to do this is. Are we
being too pushy, and will it all be too confusing for him?
My wife and I don't speak another language as a mother tongue
so we're not really sure if we're wise to do this, or not.
The advice: It's funny what
we fear might be pushy: I too used to think introducing a
second language (where the parents didn't speak one) was rather
over-keen. But I couldn't have been more wrong. Exposing your
child to a second - or even more - language is a wonderful
gift to give them.
The thing about learning languages very young is that, just
as they learn their mother tongue easily by being surrounded
by it, they can pick up another in the same way: it becomes
almost like one big language to them. It's not the difficult
process it becomes after about the age of 10 or 12. Research
has shown that after this age the brain handles language differently
because until then it is constantly making neurological connections
- after this age the hard-wiring slows down.
As children we process language in the frontal lobe of the
brain. But if we learn a language as a teenager or adult,
the brain has to 'scramble' to find storage space somewhere
else. So in simple terms, learn languages as a child and the
brain absorbs them readily, but after that it has to actively
find space in its filing system and it becomes much harder
work. Learning two or more languages can also help a child's
development in their mother tongue.
So it's a great idea to introduce a second language and you're
not being pushy at all. As to the best way: well, just do
it. Pick a language you all fancy learning and learn together.
Replace some of the books/DVDs your son watches with the foreign-language
one and try to make it a part of your everyday lives: exposure
is key. If you make it too much like hard work, none of you
will want to do it.
[.]
A few final tips from Foufou Savitzky, the head of the family
learning division and an assistant director at LLU+, London
Southbank University, who was brought up multilingually: don't
give up if your child doesn't seem to want to speak in the
other language, they will still be reaping the benefits; don't
worry if you slip from one language to another when speaking
to them, sometimes the foreign word just won't come to you.
If an older child seems shy of speaking in the foreign language
(some are because they are afraid of making mistakes) then
try using puppets as then they can talk through them and it's
the puppets that make the mistakes, not them. And finally,
just keep going.
(Extracted from an article by Annalisa
Barbieri in The Guardian, 15.04.06)
- Always talk a lot to your child in your language. Even
when the child is too little to understand you should talk
to them about what you are doing when you are cooking, writing,
shopping etc...
- Teach your child nursery rhymes and songs in your own
language.
- Tell your child stories in your language. Encourage your
child to join in with the story telling.
- Talk to your children about what they did at playgroup,
nursery or school in your language. If they use English
words repeat what they have said using your language.
- Don't be frightened to use your language in public. If
some people don't like it, it is their problem not yours.
- Make sure that your child knows the names of the different
languages he speaks.
- Check that your child knows which language has which name.
- Take your child to concerts, plays, poetry readings, films
etc. where they will hear people using your language.
- Try to make sure your children play with children who
speak the same home language as they do.
- Find out if there is a community language school in your
area where your language is taught. Your child might benefit
from attending classes there.
- Try to find books written in your language for your child.
If there aren't any try to make your own or ask someone
else to help you.
- Make your child feel proud of your language.
- Don't laugh or tease your child because of her accent
or if she makes mistakes.
Taken from Bilingual Children: a guide for parents and
carers, written by Foufou Savitzky, London Language and
Literacy Unit, South Bank University, 1994. Copies of this
booklet are available from Avanti Books, phone 01438 747000,
email avantiord@aol.com
Is it true that all bilingual children start to speak
later than monolingual children?
There is no evidence that bilingual children learn to speak
later. Some children, whether bilingual or monolingual, learn
to speak later than others.
Is it normal for my child to answer me in English when
I speak to her in my language?
Many children do this particularly if they know that their
parents understand English very well. These children will
be able to speak the home language again very quickly if they
need to, providing the parents continue to use the home language
with them.
My child came to England six months ago and couldn't speak
English. He has been at school since then. He doesn't speak
at all at school. Should I start speaking English to him?
Many children refuse to speak the new language for a period
of time. There are many reasons for this. The school teacher
should be asked whether she thinks that the child is simply
not wanting to talk until he feels he can do it well or whether
he has been teased and is unhappy. If the mother stops speaking
her language to her child he will feel cut off from everything
he has known previously and this might make the situation
worse. In some circumstances the mother could use English
with her child; for instance she could play games with him
such as guessing the correct English word for items on a tray;
seeing who can keep speaking English for the longest time
etc. He needs lots of priase and above all he needs his mother
to continue speaking her language to him.
I have remarried and my new husband does not speak our
language. I want my children to speak only English at home
now so that my husband can understand us.
The mother needs to explain to her new husband the advantages
of bilingualism and the importance of the mothertongue to
the children's identity. He might decide he wants to be bilingual
too! She should also explain to her children there are times
when English will be used in the family but this will only
be some of the time.
I'm not teaching my children my language because it is
not a proper language. It isn't even written down and educated
people don't speak it.
Being bilingual in any language can have very positive effects
on children and their education. It is also important for
reasons of identity particularly when children become teenagers.
The fact that a language is not written down does not mean
it is not a language. It is generally a reflection of the
lack of political status and power of the people who speak
it. English has not always been a written language.
I'm not teaching my child our family's language. I want
him to learn English first then he can learn our language.
Many parents say this. It is important to remember that the
younger a child is the easier it is to learn a language. Also
many children feel left out in their families when everyone
around them is speaking a language they cannot understand.
Children in this situation also miss out on all the advantages
of bilingualism and can develop serious identity problems
as they grow up.
My children tell me not to speak my language to them in
the school playground or in public.
Children who are not encouraged from very young to feel very
proud of their language and culture can feel like this. Also
children who are teased at school may feel embarrased. The
school should be encouraged to see bilingualism as an extra
skill which the child has. He should be praised publicly for
using it. Some children respond very well to being told of
the advantages of being bilingual. Attending classes at a
commuity language school can also help children to feel much
more positive about their bilingualism.
My child is three years old and is only just beginning
to speak. She sees a speech therapist to help her. I've asked my friend for advice who has suggested that we stop speaking our first language in the house and speak only English as otherwise my daughter will become confused. Our English
is not very good.
There is no evidence that bilingualism will make it harder
for children with speech problems to develop speech. If the
family stops speaking their language to a child who already
has a speech problem there is a possibility that the child
will become even more isolated and unable to speak. The added
problem of communication in the family being difficult in
English can only add to the problem. A child with a speech
problem needs to be surrounded by speech and people who feel
confident in their use of langauge so that she has positive
role models. In many countries children with special needs
have no choice as education is not in their own language and
they learn to speak several languages to the best of their
ability. Some researchers in this field even think that bilingualism
can be very positive for these children.
If there are any concerns about a child's speech development it is best to consult a speech and language therapist as soon as possible.
I speak Cantonese to my four year old daughter. My husband
speaks English to her. When she speaks Cantonese she uses
some English words as well as Cantonese. She does the same
when she speaks English. Is she confused?
Children will use words that they know rather than not say
anything at all. For instance if a child knows the word for
'ice cream' in one language and not the other she will use
the word in the language she knows rather than not ask for
ice cream at all. The child is not confused; she is simply
making use of all the language she has.
During the holidays we had been to see one of Henry VIII's
castles and my son knew a lot about him. When he told me in
English that they were doing work on Henry VIII at school
I suggested he should bring in the information we had from
the castle we had visited. My son looked very confused. it
was not until I explained to him that Henri Huit in French
is the same as Henry the Eighth in English that he realised
he already knew a lot about this king. Is this normal?
It is not at all unusual for children not to see the relationship
between things which they have experienced in different languages.
That is why children benefit from doing their homework and
talking about their school work in English as well as the
home language.
Taken from Bilingual Children: a guide for parents and
carers, written by Foufou Savitzky, London Language and
Literacy Unit, South Bank University, 1994. Copies of this
booklet are available from Avanti Books, phone 01 438 3500155,
email avantiord@aol.com
Many children in our preschools come from families where
languages in addition to English are spoken at home. Over
the past ten years or so it has become increasingly recognised
that being bilingual is an asset, not the learning difficulty
it was often seen to be. The benefits of being bilingual include:
- Having a wide dual language vocabulary and understanding
how language is constructed (grammar) in both languages
- Being able to speak to people in different cultural and
language contexts, using the right language and knowing
the social codes that go with it, and
- Great capacity for lateral thinking and problem solving.
So how can you help nurture the skills that young bilingual
children in your preschool are developing to enable them to
realise their potential?
- Find out about the child's home language from the parent
- make sure you know what language the child speaks.
- Provide an interpreter for at least the initial meeting
with the parent to ensure all the information that needs
to be shared both ways is understood.
- Find out from the parents some information about the child's
langauge development in their home language - just as you
would for any child.
- Work alongside the parent, especially when settling in,
use lots of gestures and open body language - much can be
communicated and understood in this way.
- Provide as many 'language bridges' as possible - for example,
ask parents for some key words in their child's home language.
It is helpful to write them phonetically to help your pronunciation.
- Encourage parents to speak to their child in their home
language when in the setting to explain aspects of the new
environment, such as where the toilets are or what the different
toys and play materials are called and what they are for.
Encourage parents to read a book in their home language
or talk about the pictures or sit with their child during
a story session to interpret.
Children will learn to speak English more readily if their
home language is being acknowledged and reinforced.
It is important to show parents and children that you value
the languages spoken in local communities. As children become
settled they will soon learn to speak English and will do
so all the more readily if their home language is being acknowledged
and reinforced.
- Place posters, books, tapes and games in other languages
as well as familiar cultural objects and pictures of people
from different ethnic groups in your setting.
- Allow children to feel comfortable speaking in their own
language to other children or staff in the setting who speak
the same language. Other children can be taught to accept
this and develop interest in other languages, learning a
few words or singing a song, for example, at circle time.
There are benefits for all children in developing an interest
in languages, especially those beings spoken all around
them.
There are issues to consider regarding how bilingual children
develop their language skills.
- Children from community language homes are already developing
language skills as tools for communicating, thinking, engaging
with the social world and for making sense of new experiences.
Learning English as an additional language should build
on this, not seek to replace it.
- Many children go through a 'silent period' when beginning
to learn a new language. This is when they neither speak
in their own language or in English while in the setting.
This is an important stage when they are taking it all in
- 'inputting' rather than 'outputting'- and staff should
be talking to the child as normal and neither cajoling them
into talking nor ignoring them.
- You should ensure that children learning English as an
additional langauge are exposed to situations where the
language is pitched at their level of development and understanding.
There is a need for visual materials to support meaning
and it is important that there is sufficient opportunity
for interacting with other children and adults.
- There is no need for one to one sessions or special activities.
Playing with other children and particpating in a wide range
of activities that encourage communication is the best way
to support a child's bilingual development.
Monitoring development
Through regular observation and monitoring you will begin
to notice various stages emerging. This is important as knowing
what to expect will help you recognise when a child is progressing
well, or alert you to a language development problem. Many
bilingual children's special needs go unrecognised where staff
are unsure of the normal range of language development in
young bilinguals. Indicators of normal progress include:
- Developing home language at home with no parental concerns
- this is the best indicator of normal language development.
- Joining in with the children in preschool but using non-verbal
gestures to indicate meaning.
- Going through a 'silent period' for a few weeks in the
new setting.
- Watching what other children do and copying their actions.
- Imitating and echoing what others say - especially enjoying
the repeated lines of a song, rhyme or story.
- Using a few words in English for significant or favourite
things.
- Picking up phrases and repeating as one word e.g. 'me-wanna-do-it',
or 'siddown-juice-time'.
- Choosing their home language when playing with other speakers
and wanting to write in home language - in some cases with
awareness of the different script of the home language.
- Preferring stories as a means of trying out skills in
English.
- Mixing the two languages in the same sentence to convey
meaning.
- Being able to converse with children in English, but understanding
more than he/she can say.
Bilingualism is not a learning difficulty, nor is it the
cause of learning difficulties.
If, in the first few months in preschool, children new to English
are developing as above then they are likely to go on widening
their vocabulary and being increasingly skilful with grammar
and syntax.
Bilingualism is a significant achievement in very young children
and their efforts should not go unrecognised. It is important
to stress that bilingualism is not a learning difficulty,
nor is it the cause of learning difficulties. Provide praise
and encouragement, monitor and support development and work
with parents, stresssing the value of the home language in
the child's life, and then bilingual achievers in your care
will benefit from the sound starting points they have gained
in preschool.
Recommended reading: Supporting Identity, Diversity and
Language in the Early Years by Iram Siraj Blachford and
Priscilla Clarke (Open University Press).
From Under Five magazine, November/December 2004,
pp. 14-15
The speech and language therapy team at Sure Start Ocean
Estate and Afasic (which represents and supports children
with speech and language impairments) have developed the Kheli-Boli
("Play-Talk") project in Tower Hamlets, London. It uses themed
bags containing books, toys and activities to promote early
language development in families (mainly Bangladeshi) who
have English as a second language. The bags also help make
the link between the culture experienced at home and the expectations
of an English nursery setting, where the emphasis is on play
as a learning tool. There is no tradition in Bangladeshi culture
of parents playing with children and especially not with toys.
The activities have also proved useful in helping speech and
language therapists identify children in need of specialist
intervention. The idea was based on the Bangla Bag scheme
developed by Sunderland ESOL (English for speakers of other
languages) team.
For more information contact Sure Start on 0870 0002288 or
visit www.surestart.gov.uk
London SIG Bilingualism
This website includes a wide range of resources for Speech and Language Therapists working with children and families from diverse cultures. It provides detailed resources from bilingual theories, culture, to language development, assessment and intervention.
www.londonsigbilingualism.co.uk/
Mother Tongue Matters
This is a voluntary group to help anybody who wants to promote, learn or pass on their mother tongue.
www.mothertonguematters.com
Waltham Forest Bilingual Group
This is a local volunteer community group set up by parents who want to share their experiences of raising children bilingually. They aim to provide support for parents and promote multilingualism. They hold events, drop in and play sessions and workshops. To find our more visit www.wfbilingual.org.uk
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