This extended review of the literature on
pupil grouping includes an analysis and synthesis of current
and yet to be published research to identify types of grouping
suited to particular pupils, the range of organisational
policies regarding pupil grouping within schools that are
related to different levels of performance and subjects
suited to particular types of grouping. The review also
considers how type of grouping may affect pupil learning
and how the transition from primary to secondary school
may be affected by various pupil groupings.
This review of the literature draws upon
studies undertaken in primary and secondary schools. The
literature review draws together school-based information
on 'organisational' and 'within-class' grouping of pupils,
as well as theoretical background and practical implementation
issues. The methodology adopted used systematic procedures
that include electronic and hand searching, mapping the
research territory and quality-assuring the studies. This
review identifies issues in the study of grouping, theories
underlying grouping initiatives, the role of grouping practices
in school transfer and the importance of teaching pupils
to work in groups.
Some of the key findings include:
- pupil grouping is often presented as a polemical debate
between setting and mixed-ability teaching. The research
evidence suggests that schools show a much wider range
of grouping practices that vary with age of pupils (especially
at transition into secondary schools) and curricular
area. In addition, consideration of pupil grouping should
include a variety of within-class groupings, and organisational
and within-class grouping for both social and academic
purposes. In order to explain evidence of associations
between grouping, learning and social behaviour, the
review suggests that school, department and classroom
decisions regarding pupil grouping are more complex
than a reflection of 'seating' arrangements. It should
also be noted that within most of the existing literature
on this subject there has been little attempt to disaggregate
variables that 'confound' attainment such as social
class, teacher perception (of attainment), school type,
etc.
- Both intervention and naturalistic studies concerning
the impact of organisational pupil grouping practices
suggest that no one form of organisational grouping
benefits all pupils. In ability-based grouping, pupils
in lower groups are vulnerable to making less progress,
becoming de-motivated and developing anti-school attitudes.
There is evidence that these pupils experience poorer
quality of teaching and a limited range of curricular
and assessment opportunities likely to have an impact
on later life chances.
- The evidence is patchy concerning the impact of grouping
strategies on pupils with specific characteristics.
For pupils identified as gifted and talented, full time
specialist programmes and constructing separate groups
within a mixed class taught by someone specifically
trained are effective in academic gains for these pupils
but the effects on the other pupils in the class and
school remain unknown.
- Evidence on gender suggests that boys are over-represented
in lower sets. There is (noncomparative) evidence from
one study that selective single-sex teaching in some
subjects can benefit boys in English and modern languages
and girls in science and mathematics, under particular
conditions.
This report concludes with several recommendations,
including insurance that policy and guidance on practice
that relates to grouping acknowledges the wide range of
practices that exist, the need for organisational grouping
to be flexible and to be evaluated, and for teachers and
schools to be responsive to emerging effects.
Kutnick, P., Sebba, J., Blatchford, P., Galton,
M., & Thorp, J. (2005). The effects of pupil grouping:
Literature review. Research Report 688. London: DfES.
Download the full report at: www.dfes.gov.uk/research/data/uploadfiles/RR688.pdf
This review explores the impact of learning
environments on students' achievement, engagement, affective
state, attendance and well-being. It draws on a body of
literature which is mainly based in the USA and the UK.
The analysis of the range of evidence shows that the existing
research that exists on the impacts of environment on teaching
and learning tends to focus much more upon some elements
(e.g. noise) and fail to synthesise understandings (e.g.
the implications of noise and temperature research tend
to conflict). Cultural and geographical differences also
highlight the importance of sensitivity to context. For
these reasons it is very difficult to make judgements about
which areas are 'worth' focussing on.
There is clear evidence that extremes of environmental
elements (e.g. poor ventilation or excessive noise) have
negative effects on students and teachers and that improving
these elements has significant benefits. However, once school
environments come up to minimum standards, the evidence
is less clear-cut. Our evaluation suggests that the nature
of the improvements made in schools may have less to do
with the specific element chose for change than with how
the process of change is managed. There also appears to
be a strong link between effective engagement with staff,
students and other users of school buildings and the success
of environmental change in having an impact on behaviour,
well-being or attainment.
Overall, this review outlines the research
literature in four areas: systems and processes; physical
environment; products and services; communication. It then
concludes with a number of recommendations for future research
to fill gaps in existing knowledge.
Higgins, S., Hall, E., Wall, K., Woolner,
P. & McCaughey, C. (2005). The impact of school environments:
A literature review. London: Design Council.
Download the full report (pdf) from: www.designcouncil.org.uk/resources/assets/assets/pdf/Publications/
This report examines the effect of class size
on pupil attainment and classroom processes in English schools
in Years 4 to 6. These findings are drawn from a large scale
study of class size and pupil adult ratio differences, which
followed up pupils throughout Key Stage 2 (KS2) in the range
of class sizes found to occur in schools, as well as systematic
observations and case studies of selected schools with large
and small classes.
Amongst the key findings of this study are:
-
No evidence was found that children
in smaller classes made more progress in mathematics,
English or science, even after allowing for the characteristics
of pupils in small and large classes.
-
Pupils eligible for free school meals
were found to make less progress than those not eligible
in both literacy and maths during KS2. These pupils
were also behind in KS1, and fell still further behind
during KS2. Pupils with special educational needs were
found to make less progress in both maths and literacy.
Girls were found to make more progress in attainment
in literacy, whilst conversely boys were found to make
more progress in maths.
-
There was no evidence that any of the
characteristics of teachers, such as their age, level
of experience, length of time in the current school
had any influence upon pupil attainment in any discipline
during Years 4-6.
-
Results for KS2 were similar to those
for reception and KS1. Class size effects on classroom
processes are not singular but multiple. As the size
increase, size and/or number of groups increases, and
the management of groups, both in terms of size and
number, becomes ever more crucial.
-
Perhaps the clearest effects of class
size were on teaching. Pupils in smaller classes were
more likely to be the focus of a teacher's attention
and experience more teaching overall in mathematics,
while in larger classes pupils were more likely to be
one of the crowd. Many teachers worry that in large
classes they cannot meet the needs of all the children
in their class. There were a number of suggestions,
from the questionnaires and case studies, concerning
ways in which class size could affect the quality and
effectiveness of teaching. Space and equipment became
less available as the number of pupils increases and
threaten effective teaching.
-
Pupils in larger classes in KS2 were
found to have a more passive role in contact with the
teachers. Conversely, in smaller classes, pupils ere
more likely to interact in an active way with teachers,
initiating contacts, responding to the teacher and sustaining
interaction with them.
-
In order to understand the effects of
the number of children in a classroom, differences between
mixed ability classes and the increasingly common practice
of setting classes by ability need to be taken into
account. Results showed no differences between classes
and sets in terms of academic attainment, and few differences
in teacher and pupil behaviour.
Blatchford, P., Bassett, P., Brown, P., Martin,
C. & Russell, A. (2004). The effects of class size on
attainment and classroom processes in English primary schools
(Years 4 to 6) 2000-2003. London: DfES.
Download the full research brief (pdf) from:
www.dfes.gov.uk/research/data/uploadfiles/RBX13-04.pdf
This NFER-led study examined the impact of
school size and single-sex education on pupil performance
and opportunities using national value-added datasets, which
contained individual pupil data across 979 primary and 2,954
secondary schools. The impact on performance in secondary
schools was measured with reference to GCSE results, including
GCSE average point score and English, maths and total science
score. The analyses also investigated the impact on opportunities
available to students in secondary schools, in terms of
entry to higher key stage 3 tiers and GCSE subjects.
Almost all primary schools were mixed but
an analysis of key stage 2 results was undertaken to investigate
the possible impact of primary school size. However, school
size was not found to have any significant impact on performance
when other factors were taken into account.
Key findings from this research include:
Overall, the findings from this study suggest
that girls, and to some extent boys, can benefit academically
from attending single-sex secondary schools and that school
size has some impact on academic attainment and opportunity.
Spielhofer, T., O'Donnell, L., Benton, T.,
Schagen, S. & Schagen,
I. (2002). The impact of school size and single-sex
education on performance. London: NFER.
This report, commissioned by the Scottish
Executive Education Department, reviews the UK and international
literature published during the past twenty years on the
effects of class size on teaching practice and on pupil
behaviour and attainment. Below are some of the main findings
of this review:
Does class size impact on pupil attainment?
- there is sufficient evidence, particularly from the
US, to show that reductions in class size are associated
with improvements in pupil achievements
- major benefits are seen in reductions in class sizes
to below 20 pupils to one teacher
- US evidence shows that using full-time classroom assistants
in regular-sized classes as a means to achieving a lower
pupil:adult ratio does not appear to increase pupil
achievement
- conflicting evidence arises from some British studies,
which indicate that attainment decreases in classes
25-30 and begins to level out with groups of over 30
pupils.
Which stages of education benefit most from
class size reduction?
- Research indicates that the benefits of class size
reduction are more marked in the early stages of a child's
schooling
- US studies suggest that the benefits of class size
reduction were most marked with groups of black children,
which may indicate that similar benefits could be achieved
for children from minority or disadvantaged groups.
- Both US and British studies indicate the gains of
early exposure to small classes are sustained
How does class size manipulation impact on
teaching practices?
- Teachers believe that class size affects their teaching
practices, particularly in the way in which they organise
within-class groups and the amount of time they can
devote to children
- Teachers report feeling less stressed and more able
to cope with their workload in smaller classes
- There is some evidence to suggest that there is a
difference between the way teachers claim they would
organise their classes if class sizes were reduced and
their actual classroom practice
What effect does class size reduction have
on pupils' learning?
- There is limited evidence on the effects of class
size on pupils' learning
- Observational studies show little evidence of collaborative
learning, most pupils appear to learn individually
- A similar lack of evidence also pertains to the effect
of class size reduction on pupils' motivation, attendance
and behaviour.
Wilson, V. (2002). Does small really make
a difference? University of Glasgow: Scottish Council for
Research in Education.
Download the full report (pdf) from www.scre.ac.uk
This review examines the effects of class
size on the decision to stay on in full time schooling at
the age of 16 and on wages at later stages in life. Little
research exists on the effect of school quality on career
decisions, although it has potentially important long-term
implications. The authors used micro data for England and
Wales that contain an unusually rich set of variables on
parental background and previous achievements. They found
that class size, measured as the pupil-teacher ratio at
the school level, has a sizeable and significant effect
on the decision to remain in full time education beyond
the minimum age. This finding is very robust and persists
when school type variables, exam results, and results from
past ability tests are controlled for. They also estimated
wage equations including the staying on decision at age
16 as one of the explanatory variables. The effect of staying
on is significantly positive for wages at age 33 and age
42,and for females also at age 23. Combining this effect
with the effect of class size on the staying on decision,
the results reveal that class size significantly affects
future wages. Reduced form models in which wages are directly
regressed on class size lead to much less accurate and generally
insignificant estimates.
Dustmann, C., Rajah, N. & van Soest, A.
(2002). Class size, education and wages. London: Centre
for Economic Policy Research.
Download the report from www.cepr.org
Other things being equal, theory would suggest
that students in smaller classes at school should do better
in terms of attainment; convincing experimental evidence
for this also exists in the US. However, a relationship
between small classes and better outcomes has generally
been evident in individual-level studies, possibly because
of endogeneity arising from low-attaining or otherwise 'difficult'
students being put into smaller classes than their higher-achieving
counterparts. This paper uses data from the National Child
Development Study to estimate the effects of class size.
Ordinary Least Squares estimates indicate that small classes
are not related to attainment; however, Instrumental Variables
estimates, with class size instrumented by the interaction
between school size and school type, show a significant
and sizeable association between smaller classes and higher
attainment in reading the early years of school. This effect
is common to different groups of students, and for some
groups (girls, and those from larger families), this association
is also found to persist through to age 11.
Iacovou, M. (2001). Class size in the early
years. London: Institute for Social & Economic Research.
The Tennessee class size project - STAR (Student-Teacher
Achievement Ratio) - is a four-year, quasi-experimental
study which was commissioned by the Tennessee legislature
in 1985. This study required that children were randomly
assigned to either a small class size (13-17 pupils), to
a regular size class (22-25 students) or to a regular size
class with a full-time aide. Children were randomly assigned
to one of these class types when they entered kindergarten.
New students were randomly assigned to one of the three
groups in subsequent years. Each year the children were
tested on both standardised and curriculum-based tests and
the performance of some 6,500 pupils in 330 classrooms at
approximately 80 schools were compared in reading, mathematics
and basic study skills.
This study showed that smaller classes produced
substantial improvements in early learning and cognitive
studies. The effect of small class size on the achievement
of minority children was initially double that observed
for majority children, but became about the same in later
years. Other significant findings were:
- at the end of third grade, pupils in small classes
in inner city schools scored higher on readings tests
than did their counterparts in regular-sized classes.
- regular classes with full-time aides out-performed
regular classes with part-time aides, but only in the
first grade. However, small classes consistently out-performed
both regular classes and regular classes with aides.
- Low income children did less well than other children
regardless of location or class size.
A subsequent phase of the study was begun in 1989 to
determine whether these perceived benefits persisted. This
research showed that children who were originally enrolled
in smaller classes continued to perform better than their
peers whose school career had begun in larger classes when
they were returned to regular-sized classes in later grades.
For further information see www.library.ca.gov,
which provides a literature and critical review of the STAR
project
This review of international research conducted
by the London School of Economics and Exeter University
is part of a wider evaluation within the Department for
Education and Employment of the link between school resources
and results. The majority of the research reviewed was American.
A number of British studies were discounted because the
data was not considered to be robust enough to be reliable.
Overall, this review showed that it is impossible
to demonstrate from existing research that extra spending
per pupil has a positive and significant impact on pupil
outcomes. Whilst class size did influence results, its effect
was small. Experienced teachers had a greater effect on
pupil outcomes than class size. Although level of training
was discounted as a factor, pay and experience of the teachers
had an important influence on results. The effect was most
marked when teachers were both experienced and well-paid.
However, according to Reynolds of Exeter University,
"The conclusions are necessarily tentative because
there are big differences between the American system and
our own. It is impossible to be certain that what works
in one country will transfer to another."
Vignoles, A., Levacic, R., Walker, J., Machin, S. &
Reynolds, D. (2000). The relationship between resource
allocation and pupil attainment. London: Centre for Economics
of Education.
Download the report from The
Centre for Economics of Education
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