This report presents the findings of a study
which took place from September 2004 to July 2005. The study
explored young children's (aged from birth to six) use of
popular culture, media and new technologies in the home
through a survey of 1,852 parents and carers of children
who attended 120 individual maintained and non-maintained
early years settings in England. A total of 524 early years
practitioners who worked in 104 of these settings were also
surveyed in order to determine their attitudes towards children's
use of popular culture, media and new technologies and to
explore how far they planned for their use in the communications,
language and literacy curriculum of the foundation stage.
The study also included an evaluation of the success of
action research projects which took place in nine of the
maintained and non-maintained early years settings. These
projects were undertaken in order to identify the impact
of interventions in which aspects of popular culture, media
and new technologies were introduced into the communications,
language and literacy curriculum of the foundation stage.
Some of the key findings from this study are:
(1) Young children are immersed in practices relating to
popular culture, media and new technologies from birth.
They are growing up in a digital world and develop a wide
range of skills, knowledge and understanding of this world
from birth. Parents and other family members scaffold this
learning, either implicitly or explicitly, and children
engage in family social and cultural practices which develop
their understanding of the role of media and technology
in society.
(2) Parents report that their young children generally lead
well balanced lives, with popular culture, media and new
technologies playing an important, but not overwhelming
role, in their leisure activities. Engagement with media
is generally active, not passive, and promotes play, speaking
and listening and reading. In addition, engagement with
media and new technologies appears to be a primarily social,
not individual, activity, taking place most often with other
family members and in shared parts of living spaces.
(3) Parents are generally very positive about the role of
media in their young children's social, emotional, linguistic
and cognitive development. They feel that their children
learn a great deal from film and television and that it
has a positive impact on many aspects of their lives.
(4) Parents support their children's interest in popular
culture, media and new technologies through the provision
of resources and interactions with children (e.g. shared
play, visits to theme parks) around their interests.
(5) Early years practitioners generally express positive
attitudes towards the role of popular culture, media and
new technologies in children's lives, including demonstrating
positive attitudes towards their use of video/console games.
However, they do have concerns about the perceived amount
of time children spend on these activities.
(6) The introduction of popular culture, media and/or new
technologies into the communications, language and literacy
curriculum has a positive effect on the motivation and engagement
of children in learning. Practitioners report that it has
a positive impact on children's progress in speaking and
listening and literacy, although the present study did not
include methods which could determine if this was the case.
The report then concludes with a number of
recommendations for research, practice and policy, such
as that there needs to be further attention paid to the
needs of early years practitioners with regard to subject
knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge in the use of
media and new technologies.
Marsh, J., Brooks, G., Hughes, J., Ritchie,
L., Roberts, S. & Wright, K. (2005). Digital beginnings:
Young children's use of popular culture, media and new technologies.
University of Sheffield: Literacy Research Centre
Download the full report (pdf) from: www.digitalbeginnings.shef.ac.uk/DigitalBeginningsReport.pdf
A new approach to learning through mobile
technologies such as "smartphones" may offer some
answers to the problem of how to motivate the large number
of young adults who are not in employment, education or
training (known as "NEETs"). Trials of games,
learning materials and learning tools, designed to be used
on a range of portable devices such as mobile phones, have
demonstrated their potential for turning reluctant learners
into enthusiasts, building self-confidence among young people
with low self-esteem, helping to improve reading, spelling
and maths.
The report contains the findings of a three-year
pan-European research and development project, called m-learning,
that set out to investigate whether mobile technologies
can engage "hard to reach" young people (the "NEETs"
group) in learning, and help those with literacy and numeracy
difficulties. The project ended with the largest trials
of mobile learning materials and systems conducted to date,
involving nearly 250 young people (aged 16- 24) in the UK,
Italy and Sweden. Most were unemployed, many had dropped
out of education (or were considered to be at risk of doing
so) and some were homeless or travellers.
Some of the key findings of this project are
that mobile learning can:
-
engage young people who have been put
off by traditional education methods. (Almost all the
young people in the trials were enthusiastic about mobile
learning and nearly two-thirds said they were likely
to take part in further learning in the future. The
majority were most interested in using a laptop, PC
or mobile device.)
-
help young people to improve their literacy
and numeracy skills and to recognise their existing
abilities. (About four out of five felt that the mobile
games could help them to improve their reading, spelling
or maths. Mentors reported perceived improvements in
these areas, particularly among those young people initially
described as being "less able" or with "very
limited ability".)
-
just under a third of respondents (29%)
were assessed by their mentors as having developed a
more positive attitude towards reading after taking
part in the research.
-
help to remove some of the formality
from the learning experience and engage reluctant learners.
(Collaborative mobile learning tools were popular, but
some young people appreciated the opportunity offered
by mobile devices to learn independently and privately
in their own time.)
-
help to combat resistance to technology
and bridge the gap between mobile phone literacy and
ICT literacy. (One group of IT-shy young adults studying
English for speakers of other languages (ESOL), were
more confident about using PCs after using the mobile
palmtop computers.)
-
help young people to remain more focused
for longer periods.
Overall, analysis of the evidence suggests
that mobile learning can make a useful contribution to attracting
young people to learning, maintaining their interest and
supporting their learning and development.
Attewell, J. (2005). Mobile technologies and
learning: A technology update and m-learning project summary.
London: LSDA.
Download the report summary from: www.lsda.org.uk
This report provides data documenting the
patterns and trends of media use among young people. The
data are based on a large (2,032) national sample of 3rd-to12th-graders
(8-18 years old), conducted via anonymous written questionnaires
of about 40 minutes in length, focusing in detail on media
use the prior day. The study also included nearly 700 young
people who completed a detailed seven-day diary of their
media use in addition to the questionnaire. The questionnaire
and the diaries attempt to document the following: Which
media young people use; the duration of use; with whom they
use media; where kids use media; what media genres or activities
they prefer; what rules, if any, govern their use of media;
what their home media environment is like; and what relationships,
if any, exist between their use of various media and their
parents, the grades they get.
Some of the key findings of this study are:
- Young people today live media-saturated lives, spending
an average of nearly 6 1/2 hours a day with media. Given
that about a quarter of the time young people are using
media, they are using more than one medium at a time
(e.g. reading and listening to music), they are actually
exposed to the equivalent of 8 1/2 hours a day of media
content. Indeed, today's youth are masters of multitasking
- Young people have access to an unprecedented amount
of media in their homes, their bedrooms, and through
portable media devices. For example, the typical 8 to
18-year-old lives in a home with an average of 3.6 cd
or tape players, 3.5 TVs, 3.3 radios, 2.9 VCRs/DVD players,
2.1 video game consoles, and 1.5 computers
- Children with easy access to media tend to spend more
time using those media
- Young people who spend the most time with media also
report spending more time with their parents, being
physically active, and pursuing other hobbies
- There are some significant differences in the amount
of time young people spend with different types of media,
based on age, gender, and race. For example, older teens
spend more time listening to music and using the computer,
while their video game-playing and TV watching goes
down
- The majority of young people say their parents don't
impose any rules on them regarding their use of TV,
video games, music or computers
-
Young people's use of "new"
media such as computers and video games does not seem
to displace their use of "old" media such
as television and music
-
This generation is largely happy and
well-adjusted, but those who are least content or
get the poorest grades spend more time with video
games and less time reading than their peers
- Television remains by far the dominant medium for
young people today, but some things about how they watch
TV may be changing
- Listening to music continues to be hugely popular,
especially among older kids, but how they listen to
music is changing, with MP3 players and internet radio
joining the mix
- Computers and the internet are rapidly becoming a
nearly universal presence in young people's lives, although
the amount of time spent using a computer outside of
schoolwork still pales in comparison to watching TV
and listening to music
- Access to and frequent use of the internet has become
commonplace among majorities of children from the major
racial and socio-economic groups, but a significant
divide in the quality and nature of that access persists
- Children continue to read regularly for pleasure but
the media environment in the home affects the amount
of time they spend reading
- Video games have become part of the landscape for
children, but they still spend far less time using them
than they spend watching TV.
This report then explores the changes in media
use from 1999 and finishes with a set of conclusions.
Rideout, V., Robers, D.F. & Foehr, U.G.
(2005). Generation M - Media in the lives of 8-18 year-olds.
The Kaiser Family Foundation.
Download the full report (pdf) from: www.kff.org/entmedia/
This document provides a comprehensive review
of the academic literature relating to children's and young
people's media literacy. It focused primarily on television,
radio, the internet and mobile telephony; and specifically
addresses the various barriers to, and enablers of, media
literacy.
Children develop media literacy even in the
absence of explicit attempts to encourage and promote it.
Accordingly, the document begins by exploring the development
of the three dimensions contained in Ofcom's definition
of media literacy: 'the ability to access, understand and
create communications in a variety of contexts'.
In terms of access, the literature suggests
that children and young people already possess quite high
levels of functional literacy, that is, the skills and competencies
needed to gain access to media content, using the available
technologies and associated software. Older children are
generally aware of regulatory mechanisms and systems of
guidance, and take these into account in seeking to make
their own decisions. The large majority of young people
show some awareness of risks relating to sexual dangers
on the internet; although they are less aware of potential
economic risks. Several studies in this area conclude that
education in media literacy may be a more effective strategy
than blocking or filtering.
In terms of understanding, there is an extensive
literature relating to the development of children's understanding
of television. This literature suggests that children's
awareness of areas such as television 'language', the difference
between representation and reality, and the persuasive role
of advertising, develops both as a function of their increasing
knowledge of the world, and as a result of their broader
cognitive and social development. Children also learn to
cope with potentially unwanted or upsetting emotional responses,
and to make critical judgments about areas such as television
violence, by employing forms of media literacy. It is important
to emphasise that these areas apply just as much to fictional
material as to factual material; and that critical understanding
goes hand-in-hand with the development of aesthetic and
emotional responses to media of all kinds. There is considerably
less research about how children interpret, evaluate and
respond to other media, including the various forms of content
found on the internet.
By contrast, when it comes to creativity,
there has been less academic research relating to 'older'
media such as video and analogue radio than to new media,
particularly the internet. Research here suggests that there
is considerable potential for media to be used as means
of communication and self-expression, not least by socially
disadvantaged groups; that creative involvement in media
production (particularly in the context of education) can
make an important contribution to the development of critical
understanding; and that new media such as online gaming
and mobile telephony provide possibilities for new forms
of interaction.
Among the barriers to media literacy are several
inter-related factors, of which social class and economic
status are the most well-established. These barriers limit
children's access to the internet, although not to established
media such as radio or television. The media literacy of
children and young people 3 Less is known about other potential
barriers such as disability and ethnicity, or about the
role of individual dispositions or motivations. It is important
to recognise that such barriers may affect the quality of
access as well as the quantity - for example, in terms of
the available functionality of the technology, the location
and level of support for use. There is evidence that access
to the internet in schools remains often very limited. It
should also be acknowledged that different social groups
may have different orientations towards particular media
- or different forms of 'cultural capital' - that may influence
the nature and quality of access.
Potential enablers of media literacy include
parents, teachers (both in schools and in informal educational
settings) and other agencies such as broadcasters and regulators.
Research suggests that parental mediation can play an important
role in developing younger children's media literacy, for
example in understanding the relationships between representation
and reality. However, the role of parents depends upon broader
beliefs about child-rearing, and many parents do not play
as great a role as they like to suggest. Meanwhile, education
about the media has a long history, at least in secondary
schools in the UK, although it remains a marginal aspect
of the compulsory curriculum and is rarely found in primary
schools. There is a growing body of evidence about the effectiveness
of particular teaching strategies, both in respect of the
'understanding' and 'creativity' aspects, although there
has been little sustained or systematic research into the
learning potential of children at different ages. Media
education is also developing in the informal sector, although
there has been little sustained evaluation of such work.
The review provides an indication of several
important gaps in the literature. These include specific
media (such as radio, mobile phones and online gaming) and
particular population groups (such as younger children,
those with disabilities, and ethnic minority groups). There
is a particular need for research about children's ability
to evaluate internet content; about their awareness of new
commercial strategies in the media; about media production
in the home; and about learning progression in media education.
Of the three areas in Ofcom's definition, 'creativity' is
by far the least well-researched. New technologies and media
forms will also pose new challenges and demands in terms
of media literacy, so it is important that research in this
field is regularly updated. There is a case here for more
sharing of research findings and methodologies between academic
and industry researchers.
In terms of methodology, the review finds
that a great deal of research in the field is based on self-reporting,
and recommends that there should be more observational studies
that explore how media literacy is used in everyday life.
In relation to education, there is a need to develop new
approaches to assessing the effectiveness of media education
in influencing media use outside the classroom. Researchers
also need to address some of the ethical difficulties, particularly
in respect of research on new media.
Finally, the review reminds us that media
literacy is multi-dimensional. The nature and extent of
the media literacy that individuals need and develop depends
very much on the purposes for which they use the media in
the first place. Different social groups may also develop
and require different forms of media literacy in line with
their motivations and preferences in media use. As such,
we need to beware of adopting a reductive or mechanistic
approach to assessing levels of media literacy among the
population at large.
Buckingham,
D. (2005). The media literacy of children and young
people: A review of the research literature. London: Ofcom.
For more information please go to the Ofcom website: www.com.org.uk/
With the growing importance of media, information
and communications in society, media literacy can be said
to serve three key purposes, contributing to (i) democracy,
participation and active citizenship; (ii) the knowledge
economy, competitiveness and choice; and (iii) lifelong
learning, cultural expression and personal fulfilment. Following
the requirement of the Communications Act (2003) that it
"promote media literacy", Ofcom has defined media literacy
as "the ability to access, understand and create communications
in a variety of contexts". As part of Ofcom's research programme,
this literature review has been commissioned to identify
relevant academic research and research methods, barriers
and enablers to media literacy, and key research gaps and
priorities for future research. The review is divided into
sections on broadcast media (including digital television)
and on internet/mobile technologies, thereby drawing together
research on "media literacy" and "information literacy".
In addition, case studies report on particular debates that
illuminate the general review.
Some of the main findings include:
- Frequent surveys chart the UK population's access
to a range of media goods, mostly in the home. A modest
body of academic literature serves to interpret and
contextualise the conditions of access to and use of
broadcast media. Findings surveying the adult population
regarding the adoption and use of analogue multichannel
television and the VCR are consistent with research
on the barriers to and inequalities in adoption of technological
innovation and consumer goods more generally
- Digital television is attracting a growing body of
academic research, much of which has been critical of
the design and content offered through enhanced services
and most of which suggests low and uneven take-up by
the audience. This is especially the case for interactive
and complex uses, suggesting a majority audience "mindset"
that still divides television (a noninteractive mass
medium) from the internet (an interactive "pull" technology).
- Key barriers to access are demographic (age, gender,
socio-economic status, disability), these in turn contributing
to the material and symbolic barriers of finances, understanding,
disposable time, and, also crucial, the production,
content and design features of media technologies.
In evaluating barriers and enablers, we note
the paucity of research about how these factors interact.
The key factors we have identified and discussed as barriers
are:
- age
- socio-economic status (including education and income
factors)
- gender o disability
- ethnicity
- proficiency in English.
The key factors we have identified and discussed
as enablers are:
- design of technologies and contents
- adult education opportunities
- consumer information and awareness
- perceived value of media goods and services
- self-efficacy (skills and confidence in using new
media technologies)
- social networks to support in gaining and maintaining
access
- family composition (especially, having children in
the household)
- work involving the use of computers and new technologies
- institutional stakeholders.
Research on media literacy also faces a series
of methodological challenges, from conceptual definitions
through to evaluation of policy initiatives. The trend is
towards multi-method, qualitative and quantitative research
designs. It is recommended that future research considers
conducting longitudinal surveys to chart change over time,
and builds on the range of innovative, indepth qualitative
methods being developed in media research.
Livingstone, S., van Couvering, E. & Thumim, N. (2005).
Adult media literacy: A review of the research literature.
London: Ofcom.
For more information please go to the Ofcom website: www.ofcom.org.uk/
Computer games are a growing part of our culture.
This review by John Kirriemuir and Angela McFarlane on behalf
of Nestafuturelab summarises the contemporary state of the
computer and videogaming industry, market and culture. It
provides an overview of the main developments in research
into gaming and the educational relevance of video games
and summarises the literature of this research. It outlines
several reasons as to why games are unlikely to be integrated
into the curriculum, which include amount of irrelevant
content, lack of stakeholder understanding of educational
benefits and lack of teacher time to familiarise themselves
with the game. However, it also highlights some of the ways
in which games can support skill development, such as strategic
thinking, planning, communication, negotiating skills, group-decision
making and data-handling.
Kirriemuir, J. & McFarlane, A. (2004).
Literature review in games and learning. Bristol: Nestafuturelab.
Download this report from www.futurelab.org.uk/resources/publications_reports_articles/literature_reviews/Literature_Review378/
Blogging - or web-logging - was a phrase coined
in 1997 by J. Barger to describe web-based pages usually
characterised by a series of short postings that can describe
anything of interest to the people or groups that created
them. This short article outlines the potential uses of
blogging as a tool for learning
Ulicsak, M. (2004). Can blogging be used in
education?. Bristol: Nestafuturelab.
Download this article from www.futurelab.org.uk
According to many, instant messaging threatens
youth literacy because it creates and reinforces undesirable
reading and writing habits. This article by David Craig,
which won the Boothe Prize in 2003, shows that instant messaging
is a beneficial force in the development of youth literacy
because it promotes regular contact with words, the use
of a written medium for communication, the learning of an
alternative literacy, and a greater level of comfort with
phonetics and the overall structure of language.
Craig, D. (2003). Instant messaging: The language
of youth literacy. Stanford University.
Download the full article (pdf) from: pwr.stanford.edu/publications
This random-digit-dial telephone survey of
more than 1,000 US parents of children aged 6 months to
6 years found that, according to their parents, children
spend an average of two hours a day with screen media (TV,
computers, video games). This is about the same amount of
time that they spend playing outside, and three times as
much as they spend reading or being read to. Although the
American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that children
under two do not watch any television, this study also found
that on a typical day, 68% of children under two use screen
media (watch TV or videos). However, 81% also listened to
music and 71% were being read to on a typical day. Overall,
listening to music was one of the most popular media activities
among young children.
Other key findings were:
- children today are growing up immersed in media
- many children six and under are active computer users
- even the very youngest children are highly exposed
to tv and other screen media
- how much the tv is left on in the home has a significant
relationship to the amount of time children spend watching
it, and to the time they spend reading
- many very young children have a tv, vcr or video game
player in their bedroom and these children spend substantially
more time with those media
- four-to six-year-old who are "heavy" tv
users spend less time reading or playing outside than
other children their age
- many parents have faith in the educational value of
electronic media
- the vast majority of parents have seen their children
imitate behavior from tv, and they are far more likely
to see them copy prosocial rather than aggressive behaviors
- most parents have media-related rules, and the children
of parents who report strongly enforcing their rules
spend less time watching tv and more time reading
- reading or being read to remains a constant in most
children's lives
- listening to music is one of the most popular media
activities among young children
- videos and dvds have become a staple of children's
lives
- playing video games is a less common activity among
the six and under set, but is more popular among boys
than girls
- there do not appear to be many differences in how
boys and girls use media at the youngest ages
- most very young children are using media with someone
else, usually with a parent in the room
Rideout, V.J., Vandewater, E.A. & Wartella,
E.A. (2003). Zero to six: Electronic media in the lives
of infants, toddlers and preschoolers. Menlo Park, CA: Kaiser
Family Foundation.
Download the report at www.kff.org
80px.gif)
