Early language development:
a review of the evidence for birth to age three 

Research shows that greater attention to early language development by parents and carers encourages the development of later literacy and communication skills. The following provides a summary of research findings in the area of early language and of researcher recommendations for good practice in fostering children's language learning. 

• Research findings
• Good practice in fostering language development

 
Research Findings 

Characteristics of early language 
In the early weeks of life, pragmatic skills (responding to verbal and non-verbal aspects of language) develop as babies interact with their carers through crying, blinking and smiling. First words appear between 12 and 18 months. 

• 12-month-olds can distinguish between words, mouth sounds and object noises. They have linguistically specific knowledge of the privileged status of language. (Hollich, Hirsh-Pasek and Golinkoff, 2000)
• Children aged 18 to 35 months demonstrate learning through integration of earlier instruction with subsequent problem-solving experience. Toddlers are not passive learners. (Chen and Siegler, 2000)

The influences that affect later achievement 

Mother-child dynamic 
Mother-child dynamic in language learning has been central to early years research. Mothers are often the predominant influences in children's early years. The concentration on maternal speech input implies that mothers share a unique relationship with their children as they learn language, that mothers are programmed to respond to children's sounds in a way that reinforces early language development and, in turn, that the child has an innate capacity for learning language. Early studies in this area (Snow, 1972; Cross, 1975) found that mother's speech facilitates, and, in some cases, hinders the language development of young children. Researchers have observed the following implications of this important dynamic: 

• Murray (1988, 91) found profound effects of post-natal depression in the mother on cognitive functions of the infant while the mother is depressed. Some of these effects may have lasting consequences for cognitive growth.
• Maternal responsiveness in infancy accounts for a significant proportion of the variance in children's later cognitive development. (Bornstein and Tamis-LeMonda, 1989)
• Rate of language development at 30 months is related to the proportion of mother's speech to the child during shared activities such as joint book-reading, play or sharing household chores. (Wells, 1987)
• Mother's scaffolding role in book reading supports the infant's experience of the conventions of print and facilitates vocabulary acquisition. Her role as a supportive teacher is vital for encouraging children to achieve their highest ability level. (dLoache and deMendoza, 1987) 
• 15 month-old children who know a greater number of early words have mothers who engage in more teaching activities such as helping, demonstrating, facilitating, pointing and giving. (Stevens, Blake, Vitale and McDonald, 1998)

• Children respond to parental speech patterns from birth (Garton and Pratt, 1989: 58) 
• Reduced social interaction between parents and children may lead to language delays. Take for example studies of children of multiple births who have delays and speech problems, which researchers attribute to differential treatment by parents. (Hay, Collett, Johnson, O'Brien and Prior, 1986) Hay et al argue that the language development problems associated with limited interaction between parents and each child are related to later reading difficulties.
• For children with various forms of handicaps that impede spoken language development, researchers recommend social environments that enable interaction between adult and child. (Rutter and Yule, 1975; Silva, McGee and Williams, 1985) This treatment of "sensitive contingent social responding" can assist children, both normal and handicapped, in their language development. (Garton and Pratt, 1989)
• Bruner regarded interaction as the major form of assistance provided by adults for language development. (Bruner 1983)
• Language formats (predictable routine language repetitions used by carers at meals, bath-times, in action songs and reading books together) help children to learn how to use language; in other words, they learn to understand that language has order and involves interactions. (Bruner 1983)
• For example, Ninio and Bruner, 1978 found that book reading by mothers and their children aid the development of grammar, of communication and later literacy skills. (Bruner 1983)
• Oral language developed from parent/child reading predicts later writing development (Crain-Thoreson, Bloomfield, Anthony, Bacon, Phillips and Samwel, 1999.)
• Children growing up in oral rich environments experience 'storying' which they replicate in their play. (Paley, 1986)
• Parents who used the play context as an opportunity to encourage their 3-4 year-olds' language use and to stretch their language abilities by using more sophisticated words increased their children's vocabulary. (Crain-Thoreson, Dahlin, Powell, 2001)

• "Older infants systematically use emotional referencing to obtain evaluations of experience and actions from their companions (Klinnert et al 1983; Stern et al 1985) and emotional transfer is critical in the development of language." (Trevarthen 1993)
• Children come to learn language through conversations. French and Woll (1981) argue that people involved in conversation rely on the context to interpret each other's utterances. Through social interactions involving conversations where linguistic and nonlinguistic contextual cues are used by both participants, children learn about language.

• Adults should surround babies with 'authentic' learning experiences rather than 'baby safe' activities to promote understanding. (Egan, 1988: 86)
• Adults should avoid introducing children too early to abstract symbolic systems of representing meaning in print and numbers because in the early years they need to be exploring and participating through their actions and through looking at or making images of things in order to learn how to be learners. (Bruner, 1963; Anning and Edwards, 2000: 84)
• Adults should have authentic and genuine emotional involvement with babies (Anning and Edwards, 2000)
• Adults should spend at least half an hour daily in meaningful play, talk and listening with their child (Ward, 2000)

Activities 
Anning and Edwards, 2000, suggest the following categories for engaging children between 0-3: speaking and listening, book/reading behaviours, and mark-making for eventually developing writing. The following suggestions for adult led activities are taken from Anning and Edwards, 2000, Mukherji and O'Dea, 2000, Ward, 2000. 

Speaking and listening 

Age	Suggested activities for carers
0-12 Months	Respond to cries promptly and identify the meaning of baby's sounds and actions  Model and repeat sounds, be consistent in feedback Enter into conversations with babies Demonstrate pleasure at their response and maintain eye contact Use songs and rhymes, model rhythms and intonations of speech  Limit TV and radio noise Talk to the baby at mealtimes, bath times, and about everything that adult/family is doing Play games such as 'Pat-a-cake', and animate and play with words and sounds Provide the names of objects
1- 2 Years	Same as above Speak slowly in simple sentences Praise the child for words used correctly Encourage play and real telephone talking Do not rush a child who is talking or look away, maintain eye contact Do not correct the child if the wrong word is used, but extend first words Encourage the child to speak to other adults and children directly and translate if their language is unclear Encourage discussion of daily events Ask purposeful questions and repeat instructions such as 'wave bye bye' Sing with children and model listening to music Provide opportunities for children to initiate talk and respond to their verbal and non-verbal communications
2-3 Years	Same as above Extend and model innovative and new sentences  Have fun with language Encourage children to talk about their experiences, present, past and future Answer children's questions patiently and fully, do not talk down to them but give positive feedback Find opportunities to expand the child's vocabulary and to explain new words

Book reading behaviours 
Adults must choose their stories wisely and talk about the story during and after its reading. (Wells, 1985) 
 

Age	Suggested activities for carers
0- 12 Months	Read and tell stories every day Allow children the opportunity to choose their stories/books Point to pictures and name objects Model book behaviour Repeat words and sounds
1-2 Years	Same as above Identify children's book preferences Use books that show common everyday objects and events and discuss them Play with repetition in well-known and favourite stories Point to and talk about text in the children's environment, ie. packaging.
2 -3 Years	Same as above Arrange a special time for reading and encourage an interest in reading Respond to children's requests to read a book Read repeatedly the same books and provide opportunities to read new books Make available a wide range of reading material (ie. Magazines, catalogues)  Have books in the home that are kept in special places that children can reach Introduce vocabulary and link with text in their every day experiences Join a library

Mark making 
(Taken from Anning and Edwards, 2000) 

Age	Activities for carers
0-12 Months	Encourage physical exploration on a variety of surfaces Offer a variety of objects for play Provide some safe mark-making tool
1-2 Years	Provide resources for mark-making indoors ie. crayons, clay, playdough, and outdoors, water sticks, pebbles Model mark-making for communication and set up opportunities Provide access to IT
2-3 Years	Praise and recognise children's drawings and writing Provide access to a wide range of different media