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- a summary of Barbara MacGilchrist's paper
(Research papers in Education 12(2) pp 157-176 (Routledge 1997)
Introduction
"Underachievement in reading is a major threat to pupils' educational
progress in both primary and secondary education. The largest group who
persistently performed least well in reading was composed of year 6, white
pupils from poor socio-economic backgrounds .... The cumulative effect
of these weaknesses in literacy on their self-esteem and opportunities
to learn can only be guessed." Ofsted 1996
Barbara MacGilchrist, Dean of Initial Teacher Education at the Institute
of Education, argues that the cumulative effects don't have to be guessed.
She cites, among others, the National Child Development Study (Davie
et al 1972) which found significant class differences in attainment. Children
from social class category 5 (unskilled), were found to have 5 times more
reading problems at the age of 7 than children in category 1 (professional
and managerial), with the difference doubling by age 11. The next follow-up
study of the cohort found that by age 16 three-quarters of the children
in category 5 had reading scores that were below average.
The Junior School Project (Mortimore et al, 1988) looked at 7-year-old
pupils in 50 London schools and provided a valuable source of evidence
about the effect of schooling on pupil outcomes. It also focused attention
on the significance of pupils' early attainment in reading.
The research team identified 12 key factors that were consistently related
to effective junior schooling. All the factors listed below are ones the
headteacher and staff could control and do something about. Overall, the
project found that of age, sex, race and social class, it was the social
class dimension that accounted for the main difference between groups
of pupils.
12 key factors of effectiveness
1) purposeful leadership of the staff by the headteacher
2) The involvement of the deputy head
3) The involvement of teachers
4) Consistency amongst teachers
5) Structured sessions
6) Intellectually challenging teaching
7) Work-centred environment
8) Limited focus with sessions
9) Maximum communication between teachers and pupils
10 Record keeping
11) Parental involvement
12) Positive climate
Useful research
Interestingly, the focus on progress revealed the significance of schooling.
With reading, the school effect was found to be 4 times more important
than home background. For maths and writing it was 10 times. However,
while the research team found that effective schools did boost the achievement
levels of all the children, they also found that what did not happen was
a narrowing of the gap between the achievement levels of the disadvantaged
and the privileged groups. A key finding was that pupils' level of
ability at age 7 was a good predictor of their future level of achievement.
A relationship was found between the level of reading at age 7 and
the level of achievement at examinations at 16. Despite 5 years of secondary
schooling, the primary effect had not been washed out.
An interesting example is given of research (Athey 1990) that demonstrates
that teachers can improve the achievement levels of children from disadvantaged
backgrounds and that they can narrow the gap between them and middle class
pupils. Athey argues that the reason for the gains was the quality of
the curriculum content provided by the teacher and supported by the parents.
By observing children at work and listening to what they had to say the
teacher was able to identify their current pattern of thinking and so
provide a rich range of curriculum experiences to support and extend the
children's conceptual development. Parents were kept in contact over progress
and provided with practical examples to engage in at home. It was the
quality of the match, the meeting point between the methods used, the
content and the learning process - which appeared to determine the degree
of progress. Stress was placed on formative rather than summative assessment.
to determine the next step for the child. The results showed that initial
wide differentiation in cognitive functioning can be reduced by early
education. It also demonstrated that parents can become partners in raising
achievement.
Early intervention to combat underachievement in reading: The
article goes on to emphasise the growing body of research evidence which
points to the need to intervene early when children are experiencing difficulties
in learning to read and outlines programmes like Success for All
and Reading Recovery.
Inspection initiatives: The article draws
attention to Ofsted's 1993 findings that stressed the need for pupils
in schools in disadvantaged areas to have access to skilled teaching in
oral and written communication including reading. In 1995 a follow-up
study on the teaching of read-ing in inner city schools identified the
following main characteristics in the teaching of reading:
- effective direct teaching
- high priority given to reading and time used effectively
- clear policy and expectations
- effective leadership by English co-ordinator
- good user of SATs & other test results to monitor pupil progress
- firm leadership and monitoring by headteacher
In 1996 the Government announced the National Literacy Project to create
a national framework to be used in all primary schools.
Within her conclusion Barbara MacGilchrist
lists: Some lessons for policy makers:
1) Schools can make a difference; they can break the relationship between
disadvantage and underachievement in reading
2) Targeting resources on the early years of primary education is a long
term investment for the future
3) The combination of early assessment, early intervention and structured
teaching by well-trained teachers has a significant impact on pupils'
early progress in reading and their later academic achievement.
4) Short-term uncoordinated initiatives to raise standards do not work
5) To combat underachievement in reading, a long-term, system-led strategy,
nationally co-ordinated and locally managed is required.
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