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Information and communication technology (ICT) is associated with unprecedented global flows of information, products, people, capital and ideas, connecting vast networks of individuals across geographic boundaries at negligible marginal cost. ICT is an important part of the policy agendas of OECD countries, with profound implications for education, both because ICT can facilitate new forms of learning and because it has become important for young people to master ICT in preparation for adult life. But how extensive is access to ICT in schools and informal settings and how is it used by students?
Drawing on data from the OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), Are Students Ready for a Technology-Rich World? What PISA Studies Tell Us, examines:
. Whether access to computers for students is equitable across countries and student groups;
. How students use ICT and what their attitudes are towards ICT;
. The relationship between students' access to and use of ICT and their performance in PISA 2003;
. The implications for educational policy.
This report sheds light on how students are using computers and shows that they use them for a wide range of functions and not just to play games. Only a minority of students reported frequent use of specific educational software, but one-half of the students surveyed reported frequent use of the Internet as a research tool and frequent use of word processing software, both of which have educational potential. The vast majority of students are confident in performing basic ICT tasks such as opening, deleting and saving files and students are generally confident about their Internet abilities. While fewer 15-year-olds are confident performing high-level tasks - such as creating a multi-media presentation or writing a computer program - unaided most think they could do so with some help.
15-year-olds use their computers at home more often than at school. For example, almost three out of four students in OECD countries use computers at home several times a week compared to only 44% who use computers frequently at school.
Computer use appears to be most beneficial to students' performance in maths. Overall, even when socio-economic disadvantage is controlled for, there is a sizeable positive effect from regular computer use.
OECD (2006). Are Students Ready for a Technology-Rich World?: What PISA Studies Tell Us. OECD.
For further information see: www.oecd.org/document/
This report, which is based on surveys and interviews of 1001 adults as well as an ethnographic study of 25 ICT users, shows that ICT has not increased participation and achievement in adult education. Adult learning through ICT was not only found to be informal and unstructured, even when it took place at work or in educational institutions, but was also most often concerned with the technology itself rather than as a means to learn something else. Indeed, ICT appeared to reinforce existing patterns of learning and was more beneficial to people who were already learners, or who would have become learners without access to ICT.
Only half of the adult population used ICT despite increased levels of access to computers and the internet, and using the internet to learn new skills, such as a language, was secondary to communicating with family and friends, and searching for specific information.
Overall, only 38% of the adults surveyed had continued with any form of formal learning directly after reaching compulsory school-leaving age. This study also found that the use of ICT was associated with the same socio-demographic factors that determine school-leaving age: age and socio-economic background. Indeed, the key determinant of learning in later life was motivation, self-discipline, work experiences and family life as an adult rather than access to ICT.
For more information about this project please contact:
Dr Neil Selwyn at Cardiff University: selwynnc@cardiff.ac.uk or
Becky Gammon at the ESRC: becky.gammon@esrc.ac.uk
These two reports seek to identify the factors that prevent and facilitate the uptake of ICT by teachers. The report on the barriers found that the uptake of ICT is most commonly prevented by lack of confidence, recurring technical faults, and resistance to change. The second report on the enables shows that the uptake of ICT is most frequently facilitated by leadership and planning, sharing of resources, technical support, and schools working with each other and with the local community.
Jones, A. (2004). A review of the research literature on barriers to the uptake of ICT by teachers. Coventry: Becta.
Scrimshaw, P. (2004). Enabling teachers to make successful use of ICT. Coventry: Becta.
The two reports can be downloaded from www.becta.org.uk
Previous studies carried out by the Institute of Education have provided a broad picture of practice in the use of information and communications technology (ICT) in adult literacy, numeracy and English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL). This research found some positive signs, but suggested there was a long way to go if the expectations of the impact of ICT on learning for this group of learners were to be met. Further research was needed to discover more effective ways of using ICT to improve learning for learners with basic skills needs in order to support a move beyond present practice.
The aim of this present study was to carry out detailed observational research in classrooms: to collect, review and analyse existing practice; examine how the use of ICT had impacted on the teaching and learning of basic skills in these classrooms; and so to begin to more closely identify the factors involved in effective teaching with ICT in the areas of adult literacy, numeracy and ESOL. The findings of this project will inform an intervention study, which will generate hypotheses about effective use of ICT in adult literacy, numeracy and ESOL and then develop and test these strategies. The main findings of the present study were:
- Using ICT: The predominant pattern of activity was for learners to use a desktop computer on their own, with the tutor either presenting to the whole class or involved in discussion with groups or individuals. About half of the observed activity involved the use of office software and half the use of educational software. The majority of ICT use was directed towards practice, but some use related to the creation of new materials or accessing information (this latter activity tended to be associated with students working in small groups).
- Integrating ICT: Various activities involved the use of ICT to support the teaching of basic skills. At one extreme, ICT was seen as just another teaching tool and the technological demands were kept to a minimum. At the other extreme, ICT skills were seen as important elements of new literacies.
- Teaching styles: The majority of teaching consisted of group presentation followed by an activity supported by individual tutoring, though some sessions consisted exclusively of individual tutoring. The tutors spent about half their time talking to the class as a whole and about half talking with small groups and individuals. The amount of time devoted by tutors to quiet observation of learners was quite small. However, on some occasions tutors sat back and avoided intervening as part of a conscious process of encouraging student independence and autonomy.
- Teaching with ICT: Teachers adapted the use of ICT to their own style of teaching. Different patterns of ICT use were found in numeracy, literacy and ESOL. Tutors' level of ICT skills had an impact on their ability to make effective use of the technology. It was also true that specific characteristics of certain technologies affected the way in which these were used in the classroom.
- Teaching ICT skills: Talking about a procedure, demonstrating it and then asking the students to try it on their own was the most frequent method adopted to teach ICT skills. A minority of tutors encouraged learners to experiment and discover for themselves how the software worked.
- Learning styles: The visual elements of ICT presentation were useful to many learners, but we saw few attempts to accommodate students' learning styles in other ways. Individual and whole group work were the dominant styles but small group work was encouraged in some literacy and ESOL classes.
This report concludes with recommendations for practice and policy.
Mellar, H., Karnbouri, M., Sanderson, M. & Pavlou, V. (2004). ICT and adult literacy, numeracy and ESOL. London: NRDC.
Download this report from: www.nrdc.org.uk
A recent research project conducted by Becta on behalf of the DfES investigated the effects of ICT on educational attainment, based on evidence from the published research literature. This study found positive effects of ICT on pupils' attainment in almost all the National Curriculum subjects, particularly regarding mathematics and English at all key stages. This review further suggests that a crucial component in the use of ICT within education is the teacher and their pedagogical approaches. The impact on attainment is greatest for those ICT resources that have been integrated in teachers' practices for a long time. The authors concluded that ICT has a positive impact on pupils' learning when the use of ICT is closely related to learning objectives and when the choice of how to use ICT is relevant to the teaching and learning purposes.
Cox, M., Abbott, C., Webb,M., Blakeley, B., Beauchamp, T. and Rhodes, V. (2004). A review of the research literature relating to ICT and attainment. Coventry: Becta
This report is available from www.becta.org.uk
This study, commissioned by the DfES, investigated the effects of ICT on pupils' motivation. A sample of 17 schools from across England were surveyed. This study found that ICT positively impacted on motivation, particularly in relation to engagement, research, writing and editing and presentation. Pupils reported that the Internet, interactive whiteboards, writing and publishing software, and presentational software were the most useful. There was also evidence that ICT positively influenced attitudes towards school work and school behaviour.
Passey, D., Rogers, C., Machell, J., McHugh, G. and Allaway, D. (2004). Emergent findings: The motivational effect of ICT on pupils. London: DfES.
This report is available from www.dfes.gov.uk
Discussions about learning are frequently linked to formal education systems. However, this report focuses on children and young people's use of ICT in informal learning settings. It shows that some of the public anxieties about children and ICT are misplaced, and concludes that parents need accessible research to enable them to make informed decisions about children's learning and playing with ICT in the home.
Sefton-Green, J. (2004). Literature review in informal learning with technology outside school. Report 7. Bristol: NESTA Futurelab.
This review is downloadable at www.futurelab.org.uk
A recent systematic review and meta-analysis of the effectiveness of ICT on literacy learning in English, 5-16, conducted by researchers from the University of York on behalf of the EPPI-Centre, showed that claims about the benefits of ICT may be unwarranted. More specifically, the review indicated that whilst there is not enough evidence about the benefits of ICT on literacy outcomes, there is also not enough evidence about its potential harmful effects on literacy development. The authors conclude that large robust trials need to be conducted to confirm the benefits of ICT on literacy. Otherwise, the continued high investment in ICT may be a waste of money.
Torgerson, C. and Zhu, D. (2003). A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effectiveness of ICT on literacy learning in English, 5-16. In: Research Evidence in Education Library. London: EPPI-Centre, Social Science Research Unit, Institute of Education.
The review is available from eppi.ioe.ac.uk
A review of the published literature relating to the use of palmtop computers for learning was required by the m-learning project. It was needed to inform the project partners about various matters relating to their use, such as current pedagogy, and to assist with the selection of appropriate technologies in an emerging field, the design and development of learning materials, and also with the underpinning research. The following research questions guided this review: (1) How have the palmtop computers been used for learning?, and (2) What are the young adults' experiences of using palmtop computers
Because the aim of the m-leanring project is to use mobile technologies to try to re-engage young adults (aged 16-24) in learning and to start to change their attitudes to learning and improve their life chances, the m-learning partners also wished to find out if studies had been conduced using palmtop computers with young adults who have literacy, numeracy and other basic skill needs, and social and behavioural issues relating to youth education.
This research review synthesises the key messages from the current literature base of about 140 items, mostly written between 1999 and 2003. The main categories of information sourced have been found to be general overviews of the potential of palmtops for education, surveys of available technologies and software, and brief descriptions of largely school-or university-based research trials.
There was a notable lack of detailed, or comparative, research studies of projects and trials using handheld technologies. Some information appears to be more easily available on project websites and so has been included but of course, such items will not have been academically reviewed. The largest area reporting research was medicine, with medical students becoming major users of palmtops because their learning involves placements in hospitals and community surgeries where they need to access clinical information and record their experiences for later reflection and assessment. Physicians also use palmtops as clinical organisers to make evidence-based decisions.
This report reviews the literature on the use of palmtops with regard to literacy and numeracy skills, social issues, special needs and e-books, and provides examples of using palmtops for learning. It also offers guidance on planning and design issues related to learning with palmtop computers.
Savill-Smith, C. & Kent, P. (2003). The use of palmtop computers for learning: A review of the literature. London: LSDA.
For more information please see the LSDA website: www.lsda.org.uk/home.asp
US researchers performed a meta-analysis of 26 studies conducted between 1992-2002 that focused on the comparison between pupils' writing with computers vs. paper-and-pencil. This analysis found significant mean effect sizes in favour of computers in relation to the quantity as well as the quality of the writing. The researchers also found that the writing process is more collaborative, iterative and social in computer classrooms as compared to paper-and-pencil environments, and they concluded that pupils who use computers when learning to write are not only more engaged and motivated in their writing but also produce written work that is of greater length and higher quality.
Goldberg, A., Russell, M. and Cook, A. (2003). The effect of computers on student writing: A meta-analysis of studies from 1992-2002. Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment, 2 (1).
The report is available from www.jtla.org
Investigating the impact of networked technologies - the Internet, email - on literacy learning in English for ages 5-16, this EPPI report revealed that only a few studies have focused on networked ICT. Consequently, firm conclusion about the impact, if any, of networked ICT on literacy outcomes cannot be made, and the authors concluded that more and better research needs to be carried out in this field.
Andrews, R., Burn, A., Leach, J., Locke, T., Low, G. and Torgerson, C. (2002). A systematic review of the impact of networked ICT on 5-16 year olds' literacy in English. In: Research Evidence in Education Library. London: EPPI-Centre, Social Science Research Unit, Institute of Education.
This review is available from eppi.ioe.ac.uk
The following are four useful reports of research hosted by Nesta Futurelab that challenges the way we should be thinking about computers in schools.
- Creativity, Digital Technologies and Learning by Dr Avril Loveless, Brighton University
- Thinking Skills, Digital Technologies and Learning by Dr Rupert Wegerif, Open University
- Citizenship, Digital Technologies and Learning by Dr Neil Selwyn, Cardiff University
- Languages, Technologies and Learning by Dr Jim Milton, Swansea University
These reports are available free in PDF format at www.futurelab.org.uk
BECTA (British Educational Communications and Technology Agency) has published "Action Research for Teachers: measuring the impact of ICT" as a new document in its Information Sheet series. It aims to assistteachers who are considering research into the pedagogical and learning impacts of ICT in the classroom.
Visit www.becta.org.uk
The use of computers by children as young as three can help the formative stages of their education by developing collaborative and creative ability as well as digital skills, according to independent research.
Although computers are not universally used in nurseries and pre-school playgroups, they are invaluable in making children more aware of the technology in their lives, such as washing machines, street signals, telephones, cash registers and alarms, it found.
The research, by the universities of Cambridge and London, is the result of evaluation of the first stage of the KidSmart programme - a private/public sector collaboration in educational settings for three to six-year-olds in economically deprived areas of Britain.
The study was conducted in 14 pre-school settings (four in Scotland and 10 in England) where 27 Early Learning Centre computers were used.The computers have been specially designed for use by toddlers and young children.
The key finding was that the KidSmart programme had led to significant improvements in every area of information and communications technology after one year.
(Guardian, 22 July 2002)
This Scottish report, produced by the Scottish Executive Education Department, outlines the interim findings of a survey (conducted in 1998-1999) that was designed to assess the impact of a variety of ICT initiatives on pupils' skills and knowledge. Respondents in this study reported that ICT improved motivations, enhanced learning and teaching, improved communication and access to information, and improved efficiency and feelings of independence. Teachers perceived ICT to be useful for streamlining current teaching procedures, gaining access to new professional opportunities and new exciting teaching opportunities.
Stark, R., Simpson, M., Gray, D. and Payne, F. (2000). The impact of information and communications technology initiatives. Interchange Series. Edinburgh: The Scottish Executive Education Department.
Download the report at www.scotland.gov.uk
The follow-up report "The impact of ICT initiatives in Scottish schools, which outlines results from a 2000-2001 survey, is also downloadable from www.scotland.gov.uk
This report, conduced on behalf of Becta, indicates that the use of portables significantly improved keyboarding skills, presentation skills, motivation and ICT confidence. There was some evidence that word processors had a positive effect on writing skills. However, there was no evidence that the use of portables had any effect on reading skills. This report also outlines the factors that affected project outcome, which include teacher enthusiasm, children's prior ICT experience and access to a printer. Several implications of the data are discussed.
Lewin, C., Scrimshaw, P., Mercer, N. and Wegerif, R. (2000). The KS1 literacy evaluation project using low cost computers. Coventry: Becta
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